Research Arc 3: Vaccines and Vaccination Responses to Polio and Covid
The development of the first successful polio vaccine began in 1952 when Jonas Salk received funding to begin working on his vaccine, although research had begun since the 1930s. In 1954, Salk ran a double blind vaccine trial that utilized the help of over 1.8 million children, 50 thousand teachers, 60 thousand doctors and nurses, and 200 thousand volunteers (Larsen). The trial snowballed into a nationwide vaccination campaign. The NFIP was heavily involved in promoting the trial to parents, passing out flyers and consent forms that framed the trial efforts as a sense of obligation to the community (Ujifusa). Within two years of Salk’s vaccine being approved in 1955, polio rates dropped by 80% (Larsen). People were lined up to receive the vaccine.
Organizations had been promoting polio awareness and treatments for years before the Salk vaccine came to light. FDR founded the NFIP in 1938, which has now become one of the largest voluntary nonprofit organizations in history, with the goals of treating polio victims, raising awareness, and sponsoring research to discover a cure. In 1939, the NFIP hosted a Mile O’Dimes campaign where cities competed to create the longest chain of dimes donated from its residents, raising over $200 thousand dollars. Because of the infamous dime-sized donations, the NFIP became better known as the March for Dimes. In 1950, the women’s division of the March for Dimes in Arizona led a Mother’s March, going door to door collecting donations to a total of nearly $45 thousand dollars, which led to annual nationwide Mother’s Marches from 1951-1955. Between those four years, the march raised $250 million dollars to become the greatest fundraiser in the organization’s history (Larsen). While the vaccination of children was greatly successful, vaccinations fell short among teenagers, who held promising cultural influences whose support could lead to great positive shifts in vaccinations. Ann Johnston Research Fellow Steven Mawdsley dove into teen health activism in his article published in The Journal of the Social History Society with the NFIP’s creation of its youth chapter in 1954, called Teens Against Polio (TAP). TAP reached out to schools, boys and girls clubs, YMCA, sporting teams, and more in an attempt to recruit teenagers to help fundraise and promote vaccinations for polio. Teens in TAP hosted car washes, block parties, bake sales, ticket parties, and went door to door to fundraise. They appeared on television programs to talk about the vaccine, helped create print materials and pamphlets to distribute, because the best way to target teenagers was to create material “by teens, for teens, with teen language”. TAP’s efforts were ultimately successful in reducing the vaccination gap (Mawdsley). The polio vaccination effort was truly a community effort. The March for Dimes played an enormous role in this battle from the beginning, but it was also the willingness of parents, teachers, and teenagers to support the vaccine.
While the polio vaccine took over 20 years of research to develop, the advanced technology around the emergence of covid resulted in vaccine production and distribution within 12 to 18 months. According to Claire Klobucista’s article in the Council on Foreign Relations, In May 2020, Trump launched Operation Warp Speed to push for fast development of a vaccine through funding around $4 billion dollars total to Moderna, Pfizer, and BioNTech. After President Biden took office, the federal government has purchased over 1 billion more doses to distribute to Americans and donate to the rest of the world as well (Klobucista).
Despite the government’s fast action towards developing a vaccine, the public was still hesitant to vaccinate. Executive director Georges C. Benjamin of the American Public Health Association said in Klobucista’s article regarding vaccinations, that “‘We’ve not done a really good job of saying, ‘Here’s what happens if you get this vaccination and here’s what happens if you don’t,’. We’ve not married those two stories in a compelling way for a lot of people who are fundamentally hesitant’” (Klobucista). The cause of vaccine hesitancy, according to Benjamin, is that the government or other organizations have not convinced enough people of the importance of vaccinations. Polio had the March for Dimes, empowering the American people–covid has no such organization. Dr. Rahul Gupta with USAToday suggests that this pandemic needs a March for Dimes of its own: non-partisan, direct communication to the public, and most of all–no political influence (Gupta). Other suggestions for how to promote vaccinations have included creating more on-site vaccination locations such as at work or school, increasing observability through making vaccinated people into ‘walking vaccination advertisements’ with stickers, buttons, or pins, or offering free incentives to get vaccinated such as food, work days off, tax benefits, etc (Omer, Wood). From personal experience, many schools and workplaces have implemented mandatory vaccinations, stores and supermarkets require masks for unvaccinated customers, and college campuses are plastered with posters and signs encouraging vaccinations and masks. According to the CDC, countless volunteers, smaller organizations, companies, schools, have successfully reached members in their communities to increase vaccinations through vaccine outreach strategy programs, Zoom panels, flyers, community conversations, on-site vaccination clinics, and social media. The CDC even provides a guide for how to promote vaccinations in different community spaces (CDC). While small-scale efforts have been successful, larger organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) face criticism on a global scale for their response to covid. An article by Lidia Kuznetsova, faculty of medicine at University of Barcelona, published in Frontiers of Medical Health explains that the most popular criticisms of the WHO include both the over and underestimation of the threat of covid, allowing political biases to conflict with interests and agenda, lacking preparedness and responding too slowly. To add to the conflicts, Trump pulled the United States out of the WHO and suspended America’s financing of the organization (Kuznetsova). America’s struggle with vaccine hesitancy has been more supported locally than it has nationally. Lacking a strong, nationwide, organized effort to promote vaccinations and battle the vaccine hesitancy, the country lags behind.
Organizations had been promoting polio awareness and treatments for years before the Salk vaccine came to light. FDR founded the NFIP in 1938, which has now become one of the largest voluntary nonprofit organizations in history, with the goals of treating polio victims, raising awareness, and sponsoring research to discover a cure. In 1939, the NFIP hosted a Mile O’Dimes campaign where cities competed to create the longest chain of dimes donated from its residents, raising over $200 thousand dollars. Because of the infamous dime-sized donations, the NFIP became better known as the March for Dimes. In 1950, the women’s division of the March for Dimes in Arizona led a Mother’s March, going door to door collecting donations to a total of nearly $45 thousand dollars, which led to annual nationwide Mother’s Marches from 1951-1955. Between those four years, the march raised $250 million dollars to become the greatest fundraiser in the organization’s history (Larsen). While the vaccination of children was greatly successful, vaccinations fell short among teenagers, who held promising cultural influences whose support could lead to great positive shifts in vaccinations. Ann Johnston Research Fellow Steven Mawdsley dove into teen health activism in his article published in The Journal of the Social History Society with the NFIP’s creation of its youth chapter in 1954, called Teens Against Polio (TAP). TAP reached out to schools, boys and girls clubs, YMCA, sporting teams, and more in an attempt to recruit teenagers to help fundraise and promote vaccinations for polio. Teens in TAP hosted car washes, block parties, bake sales, ticket parties, and went door to door to fundraise. They appeared on television programs to talk about the vaccine, helped create print materials and pamphlets to distribute, because the best way to target teenagers was to create material “by teens, for teens, with teen language”. TAP’s efforts were ultimately successful in reducing the vaccination gap (Mawdsley). The polio vaccination effort was truly a community effort. The March for Dimes played an enormous role in this battle from the beginning, but it was also the willingness of parents, teachers, and teenagers to support the vaccine.
While the polio vaccine took over 20 years of research to develop, the advanced technology around the emergence of covid resulted in vaccine production and distribution within 12 to 18 months. According to Claire Klobucista’s article in the Council on Foreign Relations, In May 2020, Trump launched Operation Warp Speed to push for fast development of a vaccine through funding around $4 billion dollars total to Moderna, Pfizer, and BioNTech. After President Biden took office, the federal government has purchased over 1 billion more doses to distribute to Americans and donate to the rest of the world as well (Klobucista).
Despite the government’s fast action towards developing a vaccine, the public was still hesitant to vaccinate. Executive director Georges C. Benjamin of the American Public Health Association said in Klobucista’s article regarding vaccinations, that “‘We’ve not done a really good job of saying, ‘Here’s what happens if you get this vaccination and here’s what happens if you don’t,’. We’ve not married those two stories in a compelling way for a lot of people who are fundamentally hesitant’” (Klobucista). The cause of vaccine hesitancy, according to Benjamin, is that the government or other organizations have not convinced enough people of the importance of vaccinations. Polio had the March for Dimes, empowering the American people–covid has no such organization. Dr. Rahul Gupta with USAToday suggests that this pandemic needs a March for Dimes of its own: non-partisan, direct communication to the public, and most of all–no political influence (Gupta). Other suggestions for how to promote vaccinations have included creating more on-site vaccination locations such as at work or school, increasing observability through making vaccinated people into ‘walking vaccination advertisements’ with stickers, buttons, or pins, or offering free incentives to get vaccinated such as food, work days off, tax benefits, etc (Omer, Wood). From personal experience, many schools and workplaces have implemented mandatory vaccinations, stores and supermarkets require masks for unvaccinated customers, and college campuses are plastered with posters and signs encouraging vaccinations and masks. According to the CDC, countless volunteers, smaller organizations, companies, schools, have successfully reached members in their communities to increase vaccinations through vaccine outreach strategy programs, Zoom panels, flyers, community conversations, on-site vaccination clinics, and social media. The CDC even provides a guide for how to promote vaccinations in different community spaces (CDC). While small-scale efforts have been successful, larger organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) face criticism on a global scale for their response to covid. An article by Lidia Kuznetsova, faculty of medicine at University of Barcelona, published in Frontiers of Medical Health explains that the most popular criticisms of the WHO include both the over and underestimation of the threat of covid, allowing political biases to conflict with interests and agenda, lacking preparedness and responding too slowly. To add to the conflicts, Trump pulled the United States out of the WHO and suspended America’s financing of the organization (Kuznetsova). America’s struggle with vaccine hesitancy has been more supported locally than it has nationally. Lacking a strong, nationwide, organized effort to promote vaccinations and battle the vaccine hesitancy, the country lags behind.
In Progress Works Cited
Abramson, Mark. "History Does Repeat Itself: Lessons from the Polio Vaccine." Government Executive, 21 July 2020, www.govexec.com/management/2020/07/history-does-repeat-itself-lessons-polio-vaccine/167068/.
Brink, Susan. "Can't Help Falling In Love With A Vaccine: How Polio Campaign Beat Vaccine Hesitancy." NPR.org, 3 May 2021, www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2021/05/03/988756973/cant-help-falling-in-love-with-a-vaccine-how-polio-campaign-beat-vaccine-hesitan.
CDC. "COVID Data Tracker." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 28 Mar. 2020, covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#demographics.
CDC. "COVID Data Tracker." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 28 Mar. 2020, covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#trends_totalcases_select_00.
CDC. "How Health Departments Can Increase COVID-19 Vaccinations." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 17 June 2022, www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/health-departments/generate-vaccinations.html.
CDC. "Immunization." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 21 Oct. 2022, www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/immunize.htm#:~:text=Polio%20(3%2B%20doses)%3A%2092.5,(1%2B%20doses)%3A%2090.8%25.
Clausen, John A., et al. "Parent Attitudes Toward Participation of Their Children in Polio Vaccine Trials." American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health, vol. 44, no. 12, 1954, pp. 1526-1536. https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.44.12.1526
Conis, Elena. "Vaccination Resistance in Historical Perspective." Organization of American Historians, www.oah.org/tah/issues/2015/august/vaccination-resistance/.
Deliso, Meredith. "What's Fueling COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in Young Adults?" ABC News, 16 July 2021, abcnews.go.com/Health/young-adults-remain-hesitant-covid-19-vaccine/story?id=78828317.
Dorfman, Robert G., et al. "Dr. Polio: Revisiting FDR's Medical Legacy." Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 35 no. 1, 2018, p. 160-192. Project MUSE muse.jhu.edu/article/695810.
Eisenhower, Dwight. "Statement by the President on the Polio Vaccine Situation." The American Presidency Project, 31 May 1955, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-president-the-polio-vaccine-situation
Gupta, Rahul. "Polio Campaign of the 1950s is a Sound Model for What America Needs for COVID-19." USA TODAY, 9 Oct. 2020, www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/10/09/covid-19-and-polio-vaccines-what-1950-could-teach-us-today-column/3586538001/.
Hotez, Peter J. "COVID19 meets the antivaccine movement." Microbes and Infection, vol. 22, no. 4-5, 2020, pp. 162-164.
Klobucista, Claire. "A Guide to Global COVID-19 Vaccine Efforts." Council on Foreign Relations, 19 July 2022, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/guide-global-covid-19-
vaccine-efforts.
Kuznetsova L. COVID-19: The World Community Expects the World Health Organization to Play a Stronger Leadership and Coordination Role in Pandemics Control. Front Public Health. 2020 Sep 8;8:470. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00470. PMID: 33014970; PMCID: PMC7505920.
Larsen, Dawn. "The March of Dimes and Polio: Lessons in Vaccine Advocacy for Health Educators." American Journal of Health Education, vol. 43, no. 1, Jan. 2012, pp. 47-54, eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ978264. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ978264.pdf
Lee, Bruce Y. "Did Marjorie Taylor Greene Compare Polio And Covid-19 Vaccines? Here’s The Problem." Forbes, 21 Dec. 2021, www.forbes.com/sites/brucelee/2021/12/21/did-marjorie-taylor-greene-compare-polio-and-covid-19-vaccines-heres-the-problem/?sh=57caa4551033.
Meyers, K., Thomasson, M.A. Can pandemics affect educational attainment? Evidence from the polio epidemic of 1916. Cliometrica 15, 231–265 (2021). https://doi-org.libproxy.berkeley.edu/10.1007/s11698-020-00212-3
Moran, Padraig. "Polio Vaccine Set off Wave of Relief, and a Wave of Resistance. COVID-19 Era May Be Similar, Says Jill Lepore." CBC, 15 Dec. 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/the-current-for-june-9-2020-1.5604421/polio-vaccine-set-off-wave-of-relief-and-a-wave-of-resistance-covid-19-era-may-be-similar-says-jill-lepore-1.5604925#:~:text=wave%20of%20resistance.-,COVID%2D19%20era%20may%20be%20similar%2C%20says%20Jill%20Lepore,the%20era%20of%20COVID%2D19.
Omer, Saad B., et al. "Promoting COVID-19 vaccine acceptance: recommendations from the Lancet Commission on Vaccine Refusal, Acceptance, and Demand in the USA." The Lancet, vol. 398, no. 10317, 2021, pp. 2186-2192. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02507-1
Oshinsky, David M.. Polio : An American Story, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/berkeley-ebooks/detail.action?docID=279565.
Paz, Christian. "All the President’s Lies About the Coronavirus." The Atlantic, 23 Feb. 2021, www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/11/trumps-lies-about-coronavirus/608647/.
Schupmann, Will D. "Human Experimentation in Public Schools: How Schools Served as Sites of Vaccine Trials in the 20th Century." American Journal of Public Health, vol. 108, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1015-1022. https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1084&context=phr
Scientific American. "Paranoid Gossip About Polio Vaccine." Scientific American, 13 Apr. 2020, www.scientificamerican.com/article/paranoid-gossip-about-polio-vaccine/.
Steinberg, Neil. "Americans Were Scared of Polio Vaccines Too." Chicago Sun-Times, 31 Aug. 2021, chicago.suntimes.com/columnists/2021/8/31/22626790/coronavirus-vaccine-anti-vaxxers-polio-winchell-steinberg.
Stephen E. Mawdsley (2016) ‘Salk Hops’: Teen Health Activism and the Fight against Polio, 1955 – 1960, Cultural and Social History, 13:2, 249-265, DOI: 10.1080/14780038.2016.1145393
Thompson, Kimberly M., and Radboud J.Duintjer Tebbens. “Retrospective Cost-Effectiveness Analyses for Polio Vaccination in the United States.” Risk Analysis: An International Journal, vol. 26, no. 6, Dec. 2006, pp. 1423–40. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2006.00831.x.
Ujifusa, Andrew. "Schools Helped Defeat Polio and Diphtheria With Vaccine Efforts. Can They Do It With COVID?" Education Week, 19 Oct. 2021, www.edweek.org/leadership/schools-helped-defeat-polio-and-diphtheria-with-vaccine-efforts-can-they-do-it-with-covid/2021/10.
Wang, Xiangyu et al. “Understanding the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on social media: The effects of topics and a political leader's nudge.” Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology vol. 73,5 (2022): 726-737. doi:10.1002/asi.24576
Yeracaris, Constantine A. “The Acceptance of Polio Vaccine: An Hypothesis.” The American Catholic Sociological Review, vol. 22, no. 4, 1961, pp. 299–305. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3708037. Accessed 21 Oct. 2022.
Brink, Susan. "Can't Help Falling In Love With A Vaccine: How Polio Campaign Beat Vaccine Hesitancy." NPR.org, 3 May 2021, www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2021/05/03/988756973/cant-help-falling-in-love-with-a-vaccine-how-polio-campaign-beat-vaccine-hesitan.
CDC. "COVID Data Tracker." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 28 Mar. 2020, covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#demographics.
CDC. "COVID Data Tracker." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 28 Mar. 2020, covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#trends_totalcases_select_00.
CDC. "How Health Departments Can Increase COVID-19 Vaccinations." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 17 June 2022, www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/health-departments/generate-vaccinations.html.
CDC. "Immunization." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 21 Oct. 2022, www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/immunize.htm#:~:text=Polio%20(3%2B%20doses)%3A%2092.5,(1%2B%20doses)%3A%2090.8%25.
Clausen, John A., et al. "Parent Attitudes Toward Participation of Their Children in Polio Vaccine Trials." American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health, vol. 44, no. 12, 1954, pp. 1526-1536. https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.44.12.1526
Conis, Elena. "Vaccination Resistance in Historical Perspective." Organization of American Historians, www.oah.org/tah/issues/2015/august/vaccination-resistance/.
Deliso, Meredith. "What's Fueling COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in Young Adults?" ABC News, 16 July 2021, abcnews.go.com/Health/young-adults-remain-hesitant-covid-19-vaccine/story?id=78828317.
Dorfman, Robert G., et al. "Dr. Polio: Revisiting FDR's Medical Legacy." Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 35 no. 1, 2018, p. 160-192. Project MUSE muse.jhu.edu/article/695810.
Eisenhower, Dwight. "Statement by the President on the Polio Vaccine Situation." The American Presidency Project, 31 May 1955, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-president-the-polio-vaccine-situation
Gupta, Rahul. "Polio Campaign of the 1950s is a Sound Model for What America Needs for COVID-19." USA TODAY, 9 Oct. 2020, www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/10/09/covid-19-and-polio-vaccines-what-1950-could-teach-us-today-column/3586538001/.
Hotez, Peter J. "COVID19 meets the antivaccine movement." Microbes and Infection, vol. 22, no. 4-5, 2020, pp. 162-164.
Klobucista, Claire. "A Guide to Global COVID-19 Vaccine Efforts." Council on Foreign Relations, 19 July 2022, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/guide-global-covid-19-
vaccine-efforts.
Kuznetsova L. COVID-19: The World Community Expects the World Health Organization to Play a Stronger Leadership and Coordination Role in Pandemics Control. Front Public Health. 2020 Sep 8;8:470. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00470. PMID: 33014970; PMCID: PMC7505920.
Larsen, Dawn. "The March of Dimes and Polio: Lessons in Vaccine Advocacy for Health Educators." American Journal of Health Education, vol. 43, no. 1, Jan. 2012, pp. 47-54, eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ978264. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ978264.pdf
Lee, Bruce Y. "Did Marjorie Taylor Greene Compare Polio And Covid-19 Vaccines? Here’s The Problem." Forbes, 21 Dec. 2021, www.forbes.com/sites/brucelee/2021/12/21/did-marjorie-taylor-greene-compare-polio-and-covid-19-vaccines-heres-the-problem/?sh=57caa4551033.
Meyers, K., Thomasson, M.A. Can pandemics affect educational attainment? Evidence from the polio epidemic of 1916. Cliometrica 15, 231–265 (2021). https://doi-org.libproxy.berkeley.edu/10.1007/s11698-020-00212-3
Moran, Padraig. "Polio Vaccine Set off Wave of Relief, and a Wave of Resistance. COVID-19 Era May Be Similar, Says Jill Lepore." CBC, 15 Dec. 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/the-current-for-june-9-2020-1.5604421/polio-vaccine-set-off-wave-of-relief-and-a-wave-of-resistance-covid-19-era-may-be-similar-says-jill-lepore-1.5604925#:~:text=wave%20of%20resistance.-,COVID%2D19%20era%20may%20be%20similar%2C%20says%20Jill%20Lepore,the%20era%20of%20COVID%2D19.
Omer, Saad B., et al. "Promoting COVID-19 vaccine acceptance: recommendations from the Lancet Commission on Vaccine Refusal, Acceptance, and Demand in the USA." The Lancet, vol. 398, no. 10317, 2021, pp. 2186-2192. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02507-1
Oshinsky, David M.. Polio : An American Story, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/berkeley-ebooks/detail.action?docID=279565.
Paz, Christian. "All the President’s Lies About the Coronavirus." The Atlantic, 23 Feb. 2021, www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/11/trumps-lies-about-coronavirus/608647/.
Schupmann, Will D. "Human Experimentation in Public Schools: How Schools Served as Sites of Vaccine Trials in the 20th Century." American Journal of Public Health, vol. 108, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1015-1022. https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1084&context=phr
Scientific American. "Paranoid Gossip About Polio Vaccine." Scientific American, 13 Apr. 2020, www.scientificamerican.com/article/paranoid-gossip-about-polio-vaccine/.
Steinberg, Neil. "Americans Were Scared of Polio Vaccines Too." Chicago Sun-Times, 31 Aug. 2021, chicago.suntimes.com/columnists/2021/8/31/22626790/coronavirus-vaccine-anti-vaxxers-polio-winchell-steinberg.
Stephen E. Mawdsley (2016) ‘Salk Hops’: Teen Health Activism and the Fight against Polio, 1955 – 1960, Cultural and Social History, 13:2, 249-265, DOI: 10.1080/14780038.2016.1145393
Thompson, Kimberly M., and Radboud J.Duintjer Tebbens. “Retrospective Cost-Effectiveness Analyses for Polio Vaccination in the United States.” Risk Analysis: An International Journal, vol. 26, no. 6, Dec. 2006, pp. 1423–40. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2006.00831.x.
Ujifusa, Andrew. "Schools Helped Defeat Polio and Diphtheria With Vaccine Efforts. Can They Do It With COVID?" Education Week, 19 Oct. 2021, www.edweek.org/leadership/schools-helped-defeat-polio-and-diphtheria-with-vaccine-efforts-can-they-do-it-with-covid/2021/10.
Wang, Xiangyu et al. “Understanding the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on social media: The effects of topics and a political leader's nudge.” Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology vol. 73,5 (2022): 726-737. doi:10.1002/asi.24576
Yeracaris, Constantine A. “The Acceptance of Polio Vaccine: An Hypothesis.” The American Catholic Sociological Review, vol. 22, no. 4, 1961, pp. 299–305. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3708037. Accessed 21 Oct. 2022.